Cultural revolution. Cultural Revolution Presentation on the topic
Cultural revolution in the USSR during the years
The main goal of the cultural transformation carried out by the Bolsheviks in the 1920s and 1930s was the subordination of science and art to Marxist ideology. A huge undertaking for Russia was the elimination of illiteracy (educational program). A unified state system of public education was created, and a Soviet school of several levels arose. In the 1st Five-Year Plan, compulsory four-year education was introduced, and in the 2nd Five-Year Plan, seven-year education was introduced. Universities and technical schools were opened, workers' faculties (faculties for preparing workers for entry into higher and secondary educational institutions) were closed. The training was ideological in nature. A new, Soviet intelligentsia was formed, but the Bolshevik government treated the old intelligentsia with suspicion.
In literature and art, the method of “socialist realism” was introduced, glorifying the party, its leader, and the heroics of the revolution. Among the writers were A. N. Tolstooy, M. A. Sholokhov, A. A. Fadeev, A. T. Tvardovskiy. The most important phenomena in musical life were the works of S. S. Prokofiev (music for the film “Alexander Nevsky”), A. I. Khachaturian (music for the film “Masquerade”), D. D. Shostakovich (opera “Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk”, banned in 1936 for formalism). The songs of I. Dunaevsky, A. Alexandrov, V. Solovyov-Sedoy gained wide popularity. Cinematography has taken a significant step in its development. The most outstanding sculptural work of the 1930s. became the monument to V. Mukhinoa “Worker and Collective Farm Woman”. Through various creative unions, the state directed and controlled all the activities of the creative intelligentsia.
Socialist realism was recognized as the only artistic method, the principles of which were first formulated in the “Charter of the Writers' Union of the USSR” (1934). The main postulate of socialist realism was party identity, socialist ideology. The aesthetic concept of “realism” was voluntarily combined with the political definition of “socialist”, which in practice led to the subordination of literature and art to the principles of ideology and politics, to the emasculation of the very content of art. Socialist realism was a universal method prescribed, in addition to literature, music, cinema, fine art art and even ballet. An entire era in Russian culture passed under his flag. Many artists whose work did not fit into the Procrustean bed of socialist realism were, at best, excommunicated from literature and art, and at worst, subjected to repression (Mandelshtam, Meooyerhold, Pilnyak, Babel, Kharms, Pavel Vasiliev, etc.). Socialist realism
In 1918, the implementation of Lenin's plan for monumental propaganda began. In accordance with this plan, monuments were removed that, in the opinion of the new government, did not represent historical or artistic value, for example, monuments to Alexander III in St. Petersburg and General Skobelev in Moscow. At the same time, monuments (busts, figures, steles, memorial plaques) began to be created to the heroes of the revolution, public figures, writers, and artists. The new monuments were supposed to make the ideas of socialism visually clear. Both famous masters (S.T. Konenkov, N.A. Andreev) and young sculptors of different schools and directions, including students of art schools, were involved in the work. In total, 25 monuments were erected in Moscow over the years, and 15 in Petrograd. Many monuments did not survive, mainly because they were made of temporary materials (plaster, concrete, wood). Sculpture
In Petrograd, over the years, a monument to the “Fighters of the Revolution” was created - the Field of Mars. Project by architect L.V. Rudneva.
Obelisk in honor of the first Soviet Constitution in Moscow. Concrete Not preserved. Architect D. N. Osipov.
Sculptural group "Worker and Collective Farm Woman". They hold in their outstretched hands a sickle and a hammer, which make up the coat of arms of the Soviet Union. The author of this work is V.I. Mukhina, a major sculptor of this era, one of the most famous women in the country.
Architecture The leading direction in architecture in the 1920s was constructivism, which sought to use new technology to create simple, logical, functionally justified forms that were appropriate for design. Techniques characteristic of constructivism are the combination of solid flat walls with large glazed surfaces, the combination of volumes of different compositions. Soviet constructivism is represented in the works of V.E. Tatlin. He tried to use a wide variety of materials to construct his technical structures, including wire, glass and sheet metal. The scope of club construction can be judged by the fact that 480 clubs were built in the country in just one year, including 66 in Moscow. A whole series of architecturally original clubs were built during this period according to the designs of the architect K.S. Melnikov in Moscow and the Moscow region.
Club named after Rusakov in Sokolniki (years)
Palace of Culture named after Likhachev, created according to the design of the largest Soviet masters brothers L.A., V.A., A.A. Vesnin.
Painting and graphics In the 20s, the most mobile, efficient and widespread type of fine art was graphics: magazine and newspaper drawings, posters. They responded most quickly to the events of the time due to their brevity and clarity. During these years, two types of posters, heroic and satirical, developed, the most prominent representatives of which were Moore and Denis. Moor (D.S. Orlov) owned political posters that became classic Soviet graphics “Have you signed up as a volunteer?” (1920), "Help!" (). Posters by Denis (V.N. Denisov) are built on a different principle. They are satirical, accompanied by poetic texts, and the influence of popular popular print is noticeable in them. Denis also widely uses the technique of caricature portraits. He is the author of such famous posters as “Either death to capital, or death under the heel of capital” (1919), “World-eating fist” (1921).
Moor (D.S. Orlov) “Have you signed up as a volunteer?” (1920), "Help!" ().
Denis (V.N. Denisov) “Either death to capital, or death under the heel of capital” (1919), “World-Eating Fist” (1921).
In the post-revolutionary years, a completely innovative form of propaganda art appeared - “Windows of ROSTA” (Russian telegraph agency), in which M.M. Cheremnykh, V.V. Mayakovskiy, Moor played a special role. The posters, accompanied by sharp text, responded to the most pressing issues of the day: they called for the defense of the country, called for deserters, and campaigned for something new in everyday life. They were posted in storefronts or shop windows, in clubs, and at train stations. "Windows of ROSTA" had a great influence on the timeline of the Great Patriotic War.
In addition to graphics, the basic forms of painting also developed in the 1960s. In the visual arts during these years there were different directions. The art of the Russian avant-garde not only continued to develop, but also experienced a true flowering. The time of revolutionary transformation attracted artists to new creative experiments. Avant-garde movements such as cubism, futurism, and abstractionism became widespread in Russia. The largest representatives of the Russian avant-garde are M.3. Chagall, N.S. Goncharova, K.S. Malevich, V.V. Kandinsky, M.F. Larionov, A.V. Lentulov, P.N. Filonov. Avant-gardists were intolerant of representatives of classical art and considered themselves revolutionary artists creating new proletarian art. They controlled many of the printing presses and exhibition spaces.
Cultural Revolution (1917-1928)
October 1917 is considered the beginning of a new period in the history of Russian culture, although the consequences of the political revolution did not immediately manifest themselves in the cultural life of society.
A distinctive feature of the Soviet period of cultural history is the large role of the party and state in its development. The Communist Party, through a system of state and public organizations, directs the development of public education, cultural and educational work, literature, art, and carries out work on the ideological and political education of the people in the spirit of Marxist-Leninist ideology. The state finances all branches of culture and takes care of expanding their material base. Starting from the first five-year plan, cultural construction is planned throughout the country. Cultural issues occupy a significant place in the activities of trade unions and the Komsomol.
During the years of socialist construction, Marxist-Leninist ideology became established in Soviet society. Mass illiteracy was eliminated and a high level of education was ensured for the entire population.
The struggle for the establishment of Marxist ideology required, first of all, the organization of socialist forces. in 1918 The Socialist Academy was opened, whose main task was to develop current problems of the theory of Marxism, in 1919. Communist University named after Ya. M. Sverdlova for propaganda of communist ideas and training of ideological workers.
The formation of Marxist social science was closely connected with the restructuring of the teaching of social sciences at universities and colleges. It began in 1921, when a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the RSFSR adopted a new charter for higher education, eliminating its autonomy.
With the victory of the socialist revolution, the essence of the relationship between the state and religious organizations radically changed. The separation of church from state and school from church (decree of the Council of People's Commissars of January 23, 1918), and the widespread deployment of atheistic propaganda among the population contributed to the liberation of culture from the influence of the church. The main task of the party was to promote “the actual liberation of the working masses from religious prejudices...”. Lenin named religion among the main manifestations of the survivals, remnants of serfdom in Russia.
Communist scientists united in societies for the scientific development, popularization and propaganda of Marxism-Leninism: in 1924-1925. The Society of Militant Materialists, the Petrograd Scientific Society of Marxists, and the Society of Marxist Historians were created.
With the general improvement of the country's economic situation since 1923. a pearl began in school construction. The growth of government investments, patronage assistance from enterprises and institutions, and assistance from the rural population made it possible to begin the transition to universal primary education. the need for this was dictated by the needs of the country. which completed the restoration of the national economy and stood on the threshold of the socialist revolution. In August, the bull adopted the decree “On the introduction of universal primary education in the RSFSR and the construction of a school network.” According to the 1926 population census. The number of literate people in the republic has doubled compared to pre-revolutionary times. The workers' faculties opened in 1919 continued to function. countrywide.
The media were used for the cultural and political education of the people. Along with the periodical press, radio broadcasting became increasingly widespread. On the occasion of the 10th anniversary of Soviet power, a radio station named after Comintern is the most powerful radio station in Europe at the moment. Monumental propaganda became a new form of political-educational and cultural-educational work: in accordance with Lenin’s plan, in the first years after the revolution, dozens of monuments to outstanding thinkers and revolutionaries, cultural figures were laid and opened: Marx, Engels, the obelisk of the Soviet Constitution. In the first years of Soviet power, a tradition of mass holidays dedicated to revolutionary dates developed. A lot of work was done to attract workers to the theater, fine arts, and classical music. For this purpose, targeted free performances and concerts, lectures, and free excursions to art galleries were organized.
The relative isolation of art was destroyed, it became more independent from the ideological and political struggle in society. The task arose of creating a new artistic culture that would meet the historical tasks of the working class, which had become dominant, as well as a new multimillion-dollar audience.
One of the most difficult areas of confrontation between bourgeois and proletarian ideologies was literature and art. The artistic life of the country in the first years of Soviet power amazes with the abundance of literary and artistic groups: “Forge” (1920), “Serapion’s Brothers” (1921), Moscow Association of Proletarian Writers - MAPP (1923), Left Front of the Arts - LEF (1922). ), “Pass” (1923), Russian Association of Proletarian Writers - RAPP (1925), etc. The Soviet state took measures to protect the people from harmful ideological influences and to prevent the release of works of an anti-Soviet, religious, pornographic or hostile nature to any nationality.
Many new theater groups arose, usually not long-lasting, because they were most likely built on enthusiasm rather than on a clear ideological and aesthetic platform and did not have a material base. A large role in the development of Soviet theatrical art was played by the theaters created in those years - the Bolshoi Drama Theater in Leningrad, whose first artistic director was A. Blok, Theater named after. Sun. Meyerhold, Moscow Theater named after. Mossovet. The beginning of a professional theater for children dates back to this time, at the origins of which was N. I. Sats.
Well-known figures in the artistic life of the republic in the first Soviet decade were those writers and artists whose creative activity began and was recognized even before the revolution: V.V. Mayakovsky, S.A. Yesenin, D. Bedny, M. Gorky, K.S. Stanislavsky, A. Ya. Tairov, B. M. Kustodiev, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin. These names personified the continuity in the development of Russian artistic culture, its richness, diversity of styles and trends. M. Gorky occupied a special place in this galaxy. On his initiative, the publishing house “World Literature” was created with the goal of widely publishing the classics of world literature for the people.
The first clues to understanding the revolution that took place relate to its first months and years. These are poems by Mayakovsky, Blok’s poem “The Twelve”, posters by D. Moore, paintings by A. A. Rylov “In the Blue Expanse”, K. F. Yuon “New Planet”, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin “1918 in Petrograd” .
The new revolutionary reality required a new method of its implementation. Conventionally, we can distinguish two main trends in the artistic culture of that time: one searched in the direction of post-revolutionary realistic art, the other connected socialist art with new forms. There was a sharp struggle between supporters of the “formal school”, Lefists and defenders of the “new realism”. But real artists stood above group isolation; there was a process of mutual influence and mutual enrichment of various trends in artistic culture.
Literary and artistic magazines played a major role in the artistic life of the republic. In the 20s, a certain type of Soviet periodical was formed, continuing the traditions of domestic journalism. New magazines such as “New World”, “Krasnaya Nov”, “Young Guard”, “October” became popular. "Star", "Print and Revolution". Outstanding works of Soviet literature were published for the first time on their pages, critical articles were published, and heated discussions were held.
The best works of that time were created outside the framework of any one direction. The classics of Soviet literature included poems and lyrics by V. Mayakovsky, who was a member of the LEF, S. Yesenin, who was associated with the Imagists, and the novel “Chapaev” by D. Furmanov, one of the organizers of the proletarian literary movement.
The mid-20s saw the emergence of Soviet drama, which had a huge impact on the development of theatrical art. Major events of the theater seasons 1925 - 1927 steel "Storm" by V. Bill-Belotserkovsky at the Theater. MGSPS, “Yarovaya Love” by K. Trenev at the Maly Theater, “Fracture” by B. Lavrenev, at the Theater. Vakhtangov and Bolshoi Drama. Classics occupied a strong place in the repertoire. Attempts at a new interpretation of it were made both by academic theaters (A. Ostrovsky’s Warm Heart at the Moscow Art Theater) and by the “left” (A. Ostrovsky’s Forest and N. Gogol’s The Inspector General at the Meyerhold Theater).
The leading creative processes in the fine arts of the 20s were reflected in the activities of such groups as AHRR (Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia), OST (Society of Easel Artists), “4 Arts” and OMH (Society of Moscow Artists). The artists who were members of the AHRR sought to reflect modern reality in forms accessible to the perception of the general public: “The Delegate” by G. Ryazhsky, “Meeting of the Village Cell” by E. Cheptsov, the famous “Tachanka” by M. Grekov. The OST group set itself the task of embodying in images the relationship between man and modern production: “Defense of Petrograd” by A. Deineka, “Heavy Industry” by Y. Pimenov, “The Ball Flew Away” by S. Luchishkin.
While drama theaters had restructured their repertoire by the end of the first Soviet decade, the classics continued to occupy the main place in the activities of opera and ballet groups. The preservation and popularization of Russian musical classics was the leading direction in the work of musical theaters and orchestras, which developed despite the resistance of some musicians' associations. The most important means of propaganda and cultural work among the masses was cinema. Outstanding masters of Soviet cinema, whose work developed in the 20s, were Dziga Vetrov, who opened a new direction in documentary cinema associated with the artistic interpretation of true facts, S. M. Eisenstein - the author of "Battleship Potemkin", "October", which laid the foundation revolutionary themes in an artistic way.
Cultural life in the USSR in the 20s - 30s.
The struggle for the establishment of Marxist-Leninist ideology in the minds of people and in science was the leading direction of the ideological life of society. At the same time, the party's demands on social scientists became stricter: those of them who doubted the absolute correctness of the chosen methods of socialist construction, proposed preserving the principles of the new economic system, and warned about the danger of forced collectivization were removed from work. The fates of many scientists were tragic. Thus, prominent Russian economists A.V. Chyanov and N.D. Kondratyev were arrested and subsequently shot.
In the early 1930s, signs of Stalin's personality cult began to appear in ideological work.
At the turn of the 20s and 30s, new trends emerged in the literary and artistic life of Soviet society. Political disagreements among the artistic intelligentsia are a thing of the past; the majority of writers and artists accepted the new social system as historically conditioned and historically established for Russia. In literature and art, a turn towards realism and a desire for organizational unity were indicated. In 1925 The Federation of Soviet Writers was created. Proletarian organizations carried out great cultural and ideological work in the working environment and contributed to the promotion of talent. The state policy in the field of literature and art in the new conditions was determined in the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 23, 1923. “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations”, it was decided to liquidate the association of proletarian writers and “... unite all writers who support the platform of Soviet power and strive to participate in socialist construction into a single union of Soviet writers with the communist faction in it...”.
The leading theme in the literature of the 30s was the theme of revolution and socialist construction. The inevitable collapse of the old world, the approach of revolution is the main idea of M. Gorky’s novel “The Life of Klim Samgin” (1925 – 1936). The problem of man in the revolution, his fate - this is what M. Sholokhov’s epic novel “Quiet Don” (1928-1940) is about. The symbol of heroism and moral purity became the image of Pavel Korchagin, the hero of N. Ostrovsky’s novel “How the Steel Was Sworn” (1934). The theme of the country's industrial development was revealed in the works of L. Leonov “Sot” and M. Shaginyan “Hydrocentral”. A significant place in the fiction of the 30s was occupied by works dedicated to Russian history and outstanding cultural figures of the past. These are “Peter the Great” by A. Tolstoy, dramas by M. Bulgakov “The Cabal of the Saint” (“Molière”) and “The Last Days” (“Pushkin”). A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, B. Pasternak created brilliant examples of poetry in their work. M. Zoshchenko, I. Ilf and E. Petrov successfully worked in the genre of satire. The works of S. Marshak, A. Gaidar, K. Chukovsky, B. Zhitkov became classics of Soviet children's literature.
Since the late 20s, Soviet plays have established themselves on theater stages. Changes in the repertoire, meetings with workers at public screenings and discussions contributed to bringing the theater closer to life. For the 20th anniversary of the Great October Revolution, the image of V.I. Lenin was embodied on stage for the first time. In the performance of the Theater. Vakhtangov “Man with a Gun” based on the play by N. Pogodin. Among the theatrical premieres of the 30s, the history of the Soviet theater included “The Optimistic Comedy” by V. Vishnevsky, staged at the Chamber Theater under the direction of A. Ya. Tairov, “Anna Karenina” - staged by V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko and V. G. Stakhanovsky at the Moscow Art Theater.
In 1936 The title of People's Artist of the USSR was approved. The first to receive it were K. S. Stanislavsky, V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, V. I. Kachalov, B. V. Shchukin, I. M. Moskvin.
Soviet cinematography took significant steps in its development in the 1930s. At the end of the 20s, its own cinematography base was created: new equipped film studios and cinemas equipped with domestic projectors were created, film production was established, and sound film equipment systems were created. Soviet silent films gradually replaced foreign films from the screen. The rise in popularity of cinema was facilitated by the emergence of Soviet sound films, the first of which were in 1931. “A Journey in Life” (director N. Eck), “Alone” (directors G. Kozintsev and L. Trauberg), “Golden Mountains” (director S. Yutkevich). The best Soviet films of the 30s told about their contemporaries (“Seven Braves”, “Komsomolsk” by S. Gerasimov), about the events of the revolution and civil war (“Chapaev” by S. and G. Vasilyev, “We are from Kronstadt” by E. Dzigan, “Baltic Deputy” by I. Kheifits)
The musical life of the country in those years is associated with the names of S. Prokofiev, D. Shostokovich, A. Khchaturyan, T. Khrennikov, D. Kabalevsky, I. Dunaevsky. Musical ensembles were created that later glorified Soviet musical culture: the Quartet named after. Beethoven, Big State Symphony Orchestra, State Philharmonic Orchestra, etc. In 1932. The Union of Composers of the USSR was formed.
The process of uniting creative forces also took place in the fine arts. In 1931 The Russian Association of Proletarian Artists (RAPH) arose, designed to unite the artistic forces of the country, but it was unable to cope with the tasks assigned to it, and a year later it was dissolved. The formation of artist unions began, uniting artists from the republics and regions.
The transition to socialist reconstruction of the national economy required an increase in the education and culture of the working people. Decisive successes in the struggle for literacy were achieved during the years of the first five-year plan, when universal compulsory primary education for children aged 8–10 years was introduced for 4 years; for teenagers who have not completed primary education - in the amount of accelerated 1-2 year courses. For children who received primary education (graduated from the first level of school), in industrial cities, factory districts and workers' settlements, compulsory education at a seven-year school was established. The implementation of universal education posed complex challenges. it was necessary to strengthen the material base of public education - build new schools, provide students with textbooks and writing materials. There was an acute shortage of teaching staff. The state made large investments, which made it possible to begin the construction of new schools during the first and second five-year plans (during this period, almost 40 thousand new schools were opened). The training of teaching staff was expanded, largely due to the mobilization of communists and Komsomol members to study at pedagogical universities. Teachers and other school employees received increased salaries, which began to depend on education and length of service.
A wide network of various evening schools, courses, and clubs operated in the country, which covered millions of workers and collective farmers. High political activity, consciousness, and initiative in work stimulated the desire of workers for education and culture.
¡ In the 20-40s, a powerful cultural shift undoubtedly occurred in the USSR. If the social revolution destroyed the semi-medieval class system in the country, which divided society into “people” and “tops,” then cultural transformations over two decades moved it along the path of bridging the civilizational gap in the everyday life of many tens of millions of people. In an unimaginably short period of time, people’s material capabilities ceased to be a significant barrier between them and at least elementary culture; inclusion in it began to depend much less on the socio-professional status of people. Both in scale and in pace, these changes can indeed be considered a nationwide “cultural revolution.”
¡ ¡ ¡ However, cultural transformations, firstly, turned out to be broad, but very poor. They generated, in essence, a “semi-culture”, mixed with the bizarre spiritual marginality* of millions and millions of people. But this is not a mistake or the fault of the Soviet government of those years - it could not have been otherwise: the grandeur of the scale and the lightning speed of the pace do not ensure a high quality of culture. Secondly, culture was “imposed” on the people: by the strict regulation of rural life - by the collective farm system, and by the urban “mobilization capabilities” of factory shock construction projects, by the organizational and propaganda onslaught of state “coverage” plans, Komsomol campaigns, and trade union competitions. Thus, the germination of the need for culture was essentially replaced by the dictates of social structures and the pressure of the social atmosphere. This was already a historical mistake, generated by confidence in the omnipotence of the “revolutionary onslaught.” The zeal with which the system, hyperpoliticized by the revolution, sought to create a “culture of a new type” in our country, already in the 20s received a “Marxist” theoretical justification. These “basic features” were “established”; communist ideology and party spirit, collectivism, internationalism and patriotism, leadership of the CPSU and the Soviet state in the systematic development of culture. This is precisely what was declared to be “a new step in the spiritual development of mankind,” its “peak.” In our country there has been a violent break with cultural and historical tradition. The fight against the “vices of the old culture” led to a significant impoverishment and, in many respects, destruction of this tradition. *MARGINALITY (Latin margo - edge, border) is the borderline position of an individual in relation to any social community, which leaves a certain imprint on its psyche and way of life.
Reform in the field of education and science. ¡ ¡ ¡ During the period under review, the cultural life of the country developed very ambiguously. At the same time, significant progress has been made in many areas of cultural development. These primarily include the sphere of education. The historical legacy of the tsarist regime was a significant proportion of the illiterate population. Meanwhile, the need for rapid industrialization of the country required a huge number of competent, productive workers. The systematic efforts of the Soviet state, which began in the early 1920s, led to the fact that the proportion of the literate population in Russia grew steadily. By 1939, the number of literate people in the RSFSR was already 89 percent. Since the 1930/31 school year, compulsory primary education was introduced. In addition, by the thirties, the Soviet school gradually moved away from many revolutionary innovations that had not justified themselves: the class-lesson system was restored, subjects that had previously been excluded from the program as “bourgeois” (primarily history, general and domestic) were returned to the schedule. Since the beginning of the 30s. The number of educational institutions involved in the training of engineering, agricultural and teaching personnel grew rapidly. In 1936, the All-Union Committee for Higher Education was created.
¡ At the same time, Stalin's totalitarianism created serious obstacles to the normal development of scientific knowledge. The autonomy of the Academy of Sciences was eliminated. In 1934, it was transferred from Leningrad to Moscow and subordinated to the Council of People's Commissars. The establishment of administrative methods of managing science led to the fact that many promising areas of research (for example, genetics, cybernetics) were frozen for many years at the arbitrariness of the party. In an atmosphere of general denunciation and growing repression, academic discussions often ended in violence, when one of the opponents, having been accused (albeit unfoundedly) of political unreliability, was not only deprived of the opportunity to work, but was subjected to physical destruction. A similar fate was destined for many representatives of the intelligentsia. The victims of repression were such prominent scientists as biologist, founder of Soviet genetics, Academician N.I. Vavilov, scientist and rocketry designer, future academician and twice Hero of Socialist Labor S.P. Korolev and many others.
Features of the development of literature ¡ The situation in literature has changed significantly. In the early 30s. The existence of free creative circles and groups came to an end. By the resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks of April 23, 1932 “On the restructuring of literary and artistic organizations,” RAPP was liquidated. And in 1934, at the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Writers, the “Union of Writers” was organized, which all people engaged in literary work were forced to join. The Writers' Union has become an instrument of total government control over the creative process. It was impossible not to be a member of the Union, because in this case the writer would be deprived of the opportunity to publish his works and, moreover, could be prosecuted for “parasitism.” M. Gorky stood at the origins of this organization, but his chairmanship did not last long. After his death in 1936, A. A. Fadeev (former RAPP member) became the chairman, remaining in this post throughout the Stalin era (until his suicide in 1956). In addition to the Writers' Union, other "creative" unions were organized: the Union of Artists, the Union of Architects, and the Union of Composers. A period of uniformity was beginning in Soviet art. M. Gorky
¡ ¡ The defining style in literature, painting and other forms of art was the so-called “socialist realism”. This style had little in common with true realism. Despite the external “liveness”, he did not reflect reality in its present form, but sought to pass off as reality what should only have been from the point of view of official ideology. The function of educating society within the strictly defined framework of communist morality was imposed on art. Labor enthusiasm, universal devotion to the ideas of Lenin-Stalin, Bolshevik adherence to principles - this is how the heroes of the works of official art of that time lived. The reality was much more complex and generally far from the proclaimed ideal. Despite ideological dictatorship and total control, free literature continued to develop. Under the threat of repression, under the fire of loyal criticism, without hope of publication, writers who did not want to cripple their work for the sake of Stalinist propaganda continued to work. Many of them never saw their works published; this happened after their death.
Fine arts, architecture, theater and cinema. ¡ ¡ ¡ During this period, significant changes took place in the visual arts. Despite the fact that in the 20s the Partnership of Traveling Exhibitions and the Union of Russian Artists continued to exist, new associations appeared in the spirit of the times - the Association of Artists of Proletarian Russia, the Association of Proletarian Artists. The works of B.V. Ioganson became classics of socialist realism in fine art. In 1933, the painting “Interrogation of Communists” was painted. The pinnacle of the development of socialist realism sculpture was the composition “Worker and Collective Farm Woman” by Vera Ignatievna Mukhina (1889 – 1953). The sculptural group was made by V.I. Mukhina for the Soviet pavilion at the World Exhibition in Paris in 1937. In architecture in the early 30s. Constructivism continues to be the leading one, widely used for the construction of public and residential buildings. The aesthetics of simple geometric forms, characteristic of constructivism, influenced the architecture of the Lenin Mausoleum, built in 1930 according to the design of A. V. Shchusev. Cinema is developing rapidly. The number of films being shot is increasing. New opportunities opened up with the advent of sound cinema. In 1938, S. M. Eisenstein’s film “Alexander Nevsky” was released. Films on revolutionary themes are being made.
Results: ¡ The results of the transformations of the first years of Soviet power in the field of culture were far from ambiguous. On the one hand, certain successes were achieved in eliminating illiteracy, there was a rise in the activity of the creative intelligentsia, which was expressed in the organization of new and the revival of old societies and associations, and the creation of values in the field of spiritual and material culture. On the other hand, culture became part of state policy, coming under the control of the party and government apparatus.
Cultural life in the USSR in the 1920-1930s.
In the culture of the 1920-1930s. Three directions can be distinguished:
1. Official culture supported by the Soviet state.
2. Unofficial culture persecuted by the Bolsheviks.
3. Culture of Russian abroad (emigrant).
Cultural Revolution - changes in the spiritual life of society carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, the creation of socialist culture. The term “cultural revolution” was introduced by V.I. Lenin in 1923 in his work “On Cooperation”.
Goals of the Cultural Revolution:
1. Re-education of the masses - the establishment of Marxist-Leninist, communist ideology as a state ideology.
2. Creation of a “proletarian culture” focused on the lower strata of society, based on communist education.
3. “Communization” and “Sovietization” of mass consciousness through the Bolshevik ideologization of culture.
4. Elimination of illiteracy, development of education, dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge.
5. Break with the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage.
6. Creation and education of a new Soviet intelligentsia.
The beginning of the eradication of illiteracy. Having come to power, the Bolsheviks were faced with the problem of the low cultural level of the population. The 1920 census showed that 50 million people in the country were illiterate (75% of the population). In 1919, a decree of the Council of People's Commissars was adopted " On the elimination of illiteracy" In 1923, the company “ Down with illiteracy"led by the Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee M.I. Kalinin. Thousands of reading huts opened, where adults and children studied. According to the 1926 census, the literacy rate of the population was 51%. New clubs, libraries, museums, and theaters opened.
The science. The authorities sought to use the technical intelligentsia to strengthen the economic potential of the Soviet state. Under the leadership of an academician THEM. Gubkina the study of the Kursk magnetic anomaly and oil exploration between the Volga and the Urals were carried out. Academician A.E. Fersman Conducted geological surveys in the Urals and the Far East. Discoveries in the field of space exploration theory and rocket technology were made by K.E. Tsiolkovsky And F. Tsán-der. S.V. Lebedev developed a method for producing synthetic rubber. The theory of aviation was studied by the founder of aircraft construction NOT. Zhu-kovsky. In 1929, the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after. IN AND. Lenin (VASKhNIL, president - N.I. Vavilov).
The attitude of the authorities towards the humanitarian intelligentsia. The authorities limited the ability of the humanitarian intelligentsia to participate in political life and influence public consciousness. In 1921, the autonomy of higher educational institutions was abolished. Professors and teachers who did not share communist beliefs were fired.
In 1921, an employee of the GPU I'M WITH. Agranov fabricated the case about the “Petrograd Combat Organization”. Its participants included a group of scientists and cultural figures, including Professor V.N. Tagantsev and poet N.S. Gumilyov. 61 people were shot, including Gumilev.
In 1922, a special censorship committee was created - Glavlit, who exercised control over “hostile attacks” against the policies of the ruling party. Then created Glavrepet-com- committee for control of theater repertoires.
IN 1922 on the initiative of V.I. Lenin and L.D. Trotsky, on two “philosophical ships”, over 160 opposition-minded prominent scientists and cultural figures - philosophers - were expelled from the country ON THE. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.O. Lossky, S.L. Frank, I.A. Ilyin, L.P. Karsavin etc. Was expelled P.A. So-rokin(he studied in the Ivanovo region, - later - the largest sociologist in the USA).
In 1923, under the leadership N. K. Krupskaya Libraries were cleansed of “anti-Soviet and anti-fiction books.” They even included the works of the ancient philosopher Plato and L.N. Tolstoy. K ser. 1920s Private book publishing houses and magazines were closed.
Graduate School. Preparation of the new intelligentsia. The CPSU(b) set a course for the formation of a new intelligentsia, unconditionally devoted to the given regime. “We need the intelligentsia to be ideologically trained,” stated N.I. Bukharin. “And we will churn out the intelligentsia, produce it, like in a factory.” In 1918, entrance exams to universities and tuition fees were abolished. New institutes and universities opened (by 1927 - 148, in pre-revolutionary times - 95). For example, in 1918, a polytechnic institute was opened in Ivanovo-Vozne-sensk. Since 1919, working faculties were created in universities ( slave-faki) to prepare worker and peasant youth who did not have a secondary education for studying at higher schools. By 1925, graduates of workers' faculties made up half of the students. For people from the bourgeois-noble and intelligentsia “socially alien” strata, access to higher education was difficult.
School system in the 1920s The three-tier structure of secondary educational institutions was eliminated (classical gymnasium - real school - commercial school) and replaced with a “polytechnic and labor” secondary school. School subjects such as logic, theology, Latin and Greek and other humanities were removed from the public education system.
The school became unified and accessible to all. It consisted of 2 stages (1st stage - four years, 2nd - five years). Factory apprenticeship schools (FZU) and working youth schools (WYS) were engaged in training workers, and administrative and technical personnel were trained in technical schools. School programs were oriented towards communist education. Instead of history, social studies was taught.
State and church in the 1920s. In 1917 the patriarchate was restored. In 1921-1922 Under the pretext of fighting hunger, the Bolsheviks began to confiscate church values. In the city of Shuya, parishioners who tried to prevent the seizure of church valuables were shot. As part of the policy of “militant atheism,” churches were closed and icons were burned. In 1922, trials were organized in Moscow and Petrograd against church ministers, some of them were sentenced to death on charges of counter-revolutionary activities.
A struggle arose between the “old church members” (patriarch Tikhon) and “renovationists” (Metropolitan A.I. Vvedensky). Patriarch Tikhon was arrested and soon died, the patriarchate was abolished. In 1925, the Metropolitan became locum tenens of the patriarchal throne Peter, but in December 1925 he was arrested and deported. His successor, Metropolitan Sergius and 8 bishops in 1927 signed an appeal in which they obliged priests who did not recognize Soviet power to withdraw from church affairs. The metropolitan spoke out against this Joseph. Many priests were exiled to Solovki. Representatives of other religions were also persecuted.
Literature and art in the 1920s. Writers and poets of the “Silver Age” continued to publish their works ( A.A. Akh-ma-tova, A. Bely, V.Ya. Bryusov etc.) Directors worked in theaters E.B. Vakh-tangov, K.S. Stanislavsky, IN AND. Nemirovich-Danchenko, actress M.N. Ermolova. Exhibitions were organized by followers of the “World of Art”, “Jack of Diamonds”, “Blue Rose” and other associations of artists ( P.P. Konchalovsky, A.V. Lentulov, R.R. Falk and etc . ). The revolution gave new impetus to creativity V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Blok, S.A. Yesenina. Representatives of left-modernist movements - futurism, cubism, constructivism - showed great activity in painting, theater, architecture ( V.E. Meyerhold, V.E. Tatlin and etc.).
Many new literary groups and organizations are emerging:
Group " Serapion brothers» ( M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin, K. A. Fedin etc.) was looking for new artistic forms of reflecting the post-revolutionary life of the country;
Group " Pass» ( MM. Prishvin, V.P. Kataev etc.) advocated for the preservation of the continuity and traditions of Russian literature.
Literary and artistic associations of proletarian-Bolshevik communist orientation arose:
- Proletkult(1917-1932) - formed a new proletarian socialist culture ( A.A. Bogdanov, P.I. Lebedev-Polyansky, Demyan Bedny);
Literary group " Forge"(1920-1931), joined RAPP;
- Russian Association of Proletarian Writers(RAPP), (1925-1932) using the slogan “partisanship of literature” fought with other groups. Published a magazine "At the post";
LEF Group " Left Arts Front"(1922-1929) - poets V.V. Mayakovsky, N.N. Aseev and others created taking into account the requirements of Proletkult, published the magazine “LEF”.
These groups harassed non-party cultural figures, calling them “internal emigrants” for avoiding singing the “heroics of revolutionary achievements.” “Fellow travelers” were also criticized - writers who supported Soviet power, but allowed “co-lebania” ( MM. Zoshchenko, A.N. Tolstoy, V.A. Kaverin, E.G. Bagritsky, M.M. Prishvin and etc.).
Characteristic features of NEPA. Reasons for the defeat of anti-Soviet forces. Reasons for the collapse of NEPA. Characteristic features of the Soviet totalitarian regime. Economic transformations. Consequences of the civil war. All-Union Congress of Soviets. Conclusion by V.I. Lenin. "The next tasks of Soviet power." The ideological basis of the course is the Stalinist concept of the country's development. Results in the political sphere. Late 20s – winding down of NEPA.
“Culture in the USSR 1920-1930” - Art Cathedral of Christ the Savior. “A start to life” 1931, Pudovkin. Plans... "New Moscow". We will succeed in communism. Decree 1932 Worker and Collective Farm Woman, 1937. Steel. Multi-colored and amazing...” "Deputy of the Baltic." What happened. "Mastering a tractor." "At the construction sites of new workshops" 1932. "Future pilots" 1938. Art. The walls of China Town. Sculptor Vera Mukhina. "Tractor Drivers", 1939 S. Kirsanov “Our hands will learn everything.” We will pull out all the riddles by thread.
“Building communism” - Over what period of time. A state with strict rules. How the new house turned out. The Soviet people managed to raise the country in such a short time. The workers elected the Soviets of People's Deputies. Who will build? Devastation. Who will manage the construction? Those who were dissatisfied were severely punished. Our house. All the people participated in the construction. We are building a house. How people imagined the new house-state. Hunger. A war between residents of one state for power in the country.
"NEP Policy" - Church property. Instructions. Changes. Proletarian culture. New economic policy. Private hands. Worker control. Chervonets. The public sector was low-income. New economic policy. The need for a transition to the NEP. High rates of economic growth. Krzhizhanovsky. Food detachment. Ilyich's light bulb. Combeds. Years of NEP. Danger. Cannibals. Suppression of the Kronstadt rebellion. Party censorship. Replacement of surplus appropriation with tax in kind.
“NEP in Siberia” - The system of economic reforms of the NEP period. NEP: new strategy or new tactics. Krasnoyarsk: five centuries of history. NEP: gains and losses. Comparison of reforms of the NEP period and post-Soviet Russia. Krasnoyarsk region in the history of the Fatherland. External labor migration during the NEP period. It should be noted that the interpretation of the NEP gradually changed. NEP in Siberia. The New Economic Policy (NEP) had a positive impact.
“Development of the USSR in 20-30 years.” - NEP. Concession. Foreign policy of the USSR in the 20s. Characteristic. Main stages of industrialization. Social and political life in the 30s. Culture of the USSR in the 20-30s. Relations with Western countries. Collectivization. Main problems. Industrialization of the USSR. USSR in the 20-30s. Foreign policy of the USSR in the 30s. Nation-state building. Genoa Conference. Three different periods of cultural construction.
